OSI reference model

OSI reference model HISTORY: OSI reference model is advanced teaching of network. As there was a need of common model of protocol layers, this concept promoted the idea and defined about interoperability between network devices and software. Networking with protocol standards such as SNA and Decnet are completely vendor-developed and proprietary which are prior to OSI concept. Industries worked out to sort out such complications, and have introduced a new concept named OSI which is attempting to get everyone to agree to common network standards to provide multi-vendor interoperability. Many devices were unable to communicate with other protocols directly because of lack of common protocols. It was common for large networks to support multiple network suites. Database design and distributed database design were the interest of canepas group in the early and middle 70s. It was clear in the mid 70s that standard distributed communications architecture would be required to support database machines, distributed acce ss, and the like. For development of such standardized database systems some of the groups have studied the existing solutions, including IBMs system network architecture (SNA), so the work on protocols is done for ARPANET, and some concepts of presentation services. In spite of these defaults which lead to the development of a seven layer architecture known internally as the distributed systems architecture (DSA) in 1977. Meanwhile, in 1977 International Organization for Standardization has got a proposal that a standard architecture was needed to define the communications infrastructure for distributed processing by British Standards Institute. Thus, subcommittee on Open System Interconnection was formed by ISO [Technical Committee 97, Subcommittee 16]. The American National Standard Institute (ANSI) was charged to develop proposals in advance of the first meeting of the subcommittee. INTRODUCTION:- Although the topic of OSI can seem boring and academic, actually it is a very useful way to learn more about networking. OSI offers a good starting point for understanding the differences between repeaters, switches, and routers, for example. The model also can help one better understand network protocols. The main idea in OSI is the process of communication between the end points of a two telecommunication network, this can be divided into layers, which can be added within its layers of its own set of special, related functions. The OSI model (and networking models developed by other organizations) attempts to define rules that cover both the generalities and specifics of networks. OSI model was not a network standard, but it was used as guidelines for development of network standards. It was become so important that almost all major networks standards in use today conform entirely to its seven layers. The relationship between OSI model and internet protocol stack, as it is known that the new technologies and developments are emerged based on networks. These networks comprise of protocols and the entire protocol stack. Internet protocol stack is based on OSI model. [1] OSI MODEL:- The modern day networking process is understood by layering. OSI model consists of seven layers. They are 1. Application Layer (7th Layer) 2. Presentation Layer (6th Layer) 3. Session Layer (5th Layer) 4. Transport Layer (4th Layer) 5. Network Layer (3rd Layer) 6. Data-link Layer (2nd Layer) 7. Physical Layer (1st Layer) [2] The OSI model defines internetworking in terms of a vertical stack of seven layers. Among, these layer, there are two parts division one is upper layer and the other is lower layer. Upper layer consist of layer 7, 6 and 5 and the lower layer consist of 4, 3, 2 and 1. Among these two layer upper layer deals with the application issues which are generally are implemented only in software. The software that implements network services like encryption and connection management. When we consider deals with the data transport issues and the implement more primitive, hardware functions like routing, addressing and flow control. [3] Upper layer: (Application layer, Presentation layer, Session layer) OSI designates the application, presentation, and session stages of the stack as the upper layers. Software in these layers performs application-specific functions like data formatting, encryption, and connection management. For example: -HTTP, SSL and NFS Lower layer: (Transport layer, Network layer, Physical layer.) Lower layers of the OSI model provide more primitive network-specific functions like routing, addressing, and flow control. For example:- TCP, IP, and Ethernet Application Layer: Describes how real work actually gets done. Ex: this layer would implement file system operations. And also it defines interface to user processes for communication and data transfer in network. It provides standardized services such as virtual terminal, file and job transfer and operations. â€Å" provides service directly to the user application. Because of the potentially wide variety of application, this layer provide a wealth of services. Among these services are establishing privacy mechanism, authenticating the intended communication partners, and determining if adequate resources are present.† [3] Presentation layer : Describes the syntax of data being transferred. Ex: this layer describes how floating point numbers can be exchanged between hosts with different math formats. Mask the difference of data formats between dissimilar systems. Specifies architecture independent data transfer format. It encodes data; like encrypts and decrypts data, compresses and decompresses data. â€Å" performs data transformation to provide a common interface for user application, including services such as reformatting data compression, and encryption.†[3] Session layer : In general, describes the organization of data sequences larger than the packets handled by lower layers. Ex: this layer describes how request and reply packets are paired in a remote procedure call. It mange user session and dialogues. And also controls establishment and termination of logic between users. Reports upper layer errors. â€Å" establishes, manages and end user connection and manages the interaction between end systems. Services includes such thing as establishing communication as full or half duplex and grouping data†[3] Transport Layer:- In general, describes the quality and nature of the data delivery. Ex: this layer defines if and how retransmissions will be used to ensure data delivery. Manage end-to-end message delivery in network. Provides reliable and sequential packet delivery through error recovery and flow control mechanisms. Provides connectionless oriented packet delivery â€Å" insulates the three upper layer, 5 through 7, from having deal with the complexities of layer 1 through 3by providing the function necessary to guarantee a reliable network link. Among other function, this layer provides error recovery and flow control between the two end points of the network connections.†[3] Network layer :- In general, describes how a series of exchanges over various data links can deliver data between any two nodes in a network. Ex: this layer defines the addressing and routing structure of the Internet. Network layer function determines how data are transferred between network devices. Routes packets according to unique network device addresses. It provides flow and congestion control to prevent network resource depletion. â€Å" Establishes, maintains and terminates network connection . Among other functions, standard define how data routing and relaying are handled†[3] Data link layer: In general, describes the logical organization of data bits transmitted on a particular medium. Ex: this layer defines the framing, addressing and check summing of Ethernet packets. Defines procedures for operating the communication links and frames packets. And also detects and corrects packets transmit errors. â€Å" ensures the reliability of the physical link established at layer 1 . standard defines how data frames are recognized and provide necessary flow control and error handling at the frame level.†[3] Physical layer : In general, describes the physical properties of the various communications media, as well as the electrical properties and interpretation of the exchanged signals. Ex: this layer defines the size of Ethernet coaxial cable, the type of BNC connector used, and the termination method. Physical later defines physical means of sending data network devices and defines optical, electrical and mechanical characteristics and interfaces between network medium and devices. â€Å" controls transmission of the raw bit stream over transmission medium. Standard for this layer define such parameter as the amount of signal voltage swings, the duration of voltage and so on.†[3] INFLUENCE: The protocol stack or Internet protocol stack also show influence of the OSI model most of the terminology is same, and most of the books present an Internet protocol stack that uses OSI terminology and that includes physical and data link layer. But in 1981 article by john postal, Carl Sunshine and Danny Cohen there is a diagram showing the Internet protocol functioning on top of one of the several Network protocol and it describe such network protocol as being the packet transmission protocol in each individual network. In a article 1983 by Vinton Cerf- often referred to as â€Å" one of the founding father of the internet† and Edward Cain that the layer that IP function is called â€Å"Internetwork layer† and the layer under that is â€Å"Network layer†. We can universally that the layer at which IP function is called the Network Layer and the important layer was called â€Å"Network layer is usually omitted.† [4] TCP/IP: TCP/IP was originally developed as a research experiment. It has become the backbone of thr information superhighway. It provides users with the back bone services used to carry popular services such as the World Wide Wed (www), E-Mail and other. In late 70s as a US Government Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) research development project, the â€Å"ARPANET†. This has grown to provide connection to system world wide, helping bring the information age into reality. TCP/IP is not really a protocol, but a set of protocols a protocol stack, as it is most commonly called. Its name, for example, already refers to two different protocols, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol). There are several other protocols related to TCP/IP like FTP, HTTP, SMTP and UDP just to name a few. The TCP/IP suite can be understood as a set of discrete component with a layered architecture. The transport layer and below of the TCP/IP suite can be viewed in the figure. The link covers the internetwork and transport protocols. The delivery of packets between the adjacent nodes in an internetwork id provided bye the link protocols. This link delivery only implies that delivered information is intact. Internetwork layer is responsible for addressing and routing of packets between source and destination nodes within the network. At the final the transport layer provides full service to transfer information between them.[5] Application layer: Application layer is the communication between programs and transport protocol. Several different protocols works on the Application layer. The familiar protocols HTTP, SMTP, FTP, SNMP, DNS and Telnet. Application layer commucate through Transport layer that to through a port. Ports are numbered and standard applications always use the same port. For example , SMTP protocol always use port 25, and HTTP protocol always use port 89 and FTP protocol always use ports 20 for data transmission and 21 for control.[6] Transport layer:- The layers gets data from the Application layer and divide into several data packets. It is the most uses TCP. After receiving data TCP protocol gets the packets which sent by the Internet layer and make the in an order, because arrives at the destiny in out of order. Transport layer also check if the content of the received packet are intact and reply by giving acknowledge signal to the transmitter , allowing it to know that the packet arrived in an order at the destiny. If there are no acknowledge signal is received it re send the lost packet.[6] Internet layer: IP address is the unique virtual identity on TCP/IP network of each computer. It as charge of adding a header to the data packets received from the Transport layer. Where other control data will, it will add source IP address and target IP address. the physical address assigned to the network card of each computer. This address is written on the network card RO and is call MAC address. Let us suppose A computer want send a data to B computer so the A want to know the B MAC address but in small local area network computer can easily discover each other MAC address, this is an easy task. If there is no any virtual addressing were used we must to know the MAC address of the destination computer, which is not only a hard task but also does not help out packet routing, because it does not use a tree like structure.[6] Network Interface Layer:- The next is the network interface layer, the datagram generated on the upper layer will be sent to the network interface layer if we are sending data, or the Network Interface layer will get data from the network and send it to the Internet layer, if we are receiving data. The Network Interface Layer breaks down the packets from the Internet Layer into frames and then eventually into bits for transmission across the physical network medium. Signalling and network medium standards such as Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X .25, Frame Relay, RS-232, and v.35 are defined in this layer. Network Interface Controller (NIC) Cards, network hubs, repeaters, bridges, and switches operate at this level.[6] TCP/IP and OSI MODEL:- TCP/IP is defined in term of the protocols that constitute it. Most of the critical protocols functions are their lower layer of the OSI Reference MODEL that are layer 2, 3 and 4 which correspond to the network interface that is internet and transport layer in the TCP/IP model. Which includes all important IP at layer 3 and TCP at layer 4 which combine to give TCP/IP the name to it. TCP contains four subsections. The first description are the two TCP/IP protocols that reside at the network layer, layer 2 of the OSI model PPP and SLIP. And the second details a couple of special protocol that reside between layer 2 and 3 ARP and RARP. The third covers the TCP/IP internet layer (i.e) OSI network layer and layer 3 including IP and several other related and support protocol. At the final the fourth describes the TCP/IP transports layer protocols TCP and UDP.[7] The lower layer of the OSI model is the physical layer which responsible for the transmitting information from one place to another on a network. The layer just above the physical layer is the data link layer and in TCP/IP its call has Network interface layer. Its main job is to implement network at local level and interface between the hardware oriented physical layer, and the ore abstract, software oriented function of the network layer and the above it.[8] Effects of Internet:- As a consequence of the development of internet, the internet protocol best effort delivery. But it is considered to be unreliable when it is talked about its service. In other network architectural language it is called as connection-less protocol. Thus it has its contrast implications to so called connecting modes of transmission. This lack of reliability causes many effects. The major problems raised are: Data corruption Lost data packets Duplicate arrival Out-of-order packet delivery Coming to the effects based on IPv4 and IPv6, they are as follows. IETF declared that IPv4 will not be able to accommodate the need for ever increasing amount of IP addresses in the next few years. The increase and expansion of IP addresses are needed to accommodate following. They are used for proliferation of internet devices such as personal computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), wireless devices, and new Internet appliances; the expansion of internet through the world; the increasing applications of internet access; requirements of emerging internet applications. Thus decrease in usage of IPv4 effects all the above mentioned utilizes. The solution for this problem is found from development of IPv6 which enables a mass market and the increased adoption of the internet. IPv4 was in existence and effectively working from almost 20 years. But now all of its approximately four billion of address seems to be getting finished. Because with the tremendous growth of the internet devices and blocks of the ip addresses assigned to various organizations and countries. This fast growth in the number of devices e.g. Mobiles, computers, music players, etc. it looked as if IPv4 addresses would be exhausted in near future. In order to overcome this problem and increasing life for IPv4 certain measures have been taken e.g. network address translation (NAT), classless inter-domain routing (CIDR) and PPP/DHCP. But all of these solutions are temporary and they made networks more complex and difficult for one to understand and implement. Internet Stack Model The Internet Stack Model employs a Internet Protocol Stack or Suite both these words are used interchangeably. This can be defined as the set of communications protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks. As discussed earlier Protocol is a set of rules in a network. The names of the two protocols which employed the Internet Stack Model are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were also the first two networking protocols defined in this standard. A protocol stack (sometimes communications stack) is a particular software implementation of a computer networking protocol suit. In practical implementation, protocol stacks are often divided into three major sections: media, transport, and applications. A particular operating system or platform will often have two well-defined software interfaces: one between the media and transport layers, and one between the transport layers and applications. Upper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more abstract data, relying on lower layer protocols to translate data into forms that can eventually be physically transmitted.[1] Difference between OSI and TCP/IP:- OSI model is the standard reference model that describes how the protocols should interact with one another. This was invented by the Department of Defense.TCP/IP does map clearly into OSI model, but is so convenient to think in terms of the OSI model when explaining protocols. The major differences are:- The application layer in TCP/IP handles the responsibilities of layers 5, 6 and 7 in the OSI model. The transport layer in TCP/IP does not always guarantee reliable delivery of packets at the transport layer, while the OSI model does. TCP/IP also offers an option called UDP that does not guarantee reliable packet delivery. [9] TCP/IP appears to be a more simpler model and this is mainly due to the fact that it has fewer layers TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible model- This is mainly due to the fact because TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the internet was developed therefore it mainly gains creditability due to this reason. Where as in contrast networks are not usually built around the OSI model as it is merely used as a guidance tool The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers whereas the TCP/IP only has 4 layers. Disadvantages of OSI model: Major disadvantages of OSI model are Bad timing Bad technology Bad implementations Bad Timing: Presently it appears that standard OSI protocols got crushed. It was completed too late, TCP/IP had already taken hold and become the familiar standard for research universities by the time the OSI Model was ready Bad Technology:- Both the models and protocols are flawed. As mentioned about the layers, cause major disadvantage of this model. Working on OSI model which is associated with several definitions and protocols is extraordinarily complex. The reappearance of functions in each layer also cause problem. Some of those functions are addressing, flow control, and error control. Certain important features are placed in every layer. Some times the decisions taken for placing these features are not obvious. In the past the presentation layer had virtual terminal handling which is presently used in application layer. Data security, encryption and network management were also omitted. The criticism given by world is that communication mentality is increasing rapidly. Bad Implementations: Initial implementations made by people were huge ,unwieldy and slow Because of the complexity of the model, the initial implementations were huge, unwieldy, and slow. As time is passing the product got betterments, but bad image stuck. [10] everyone who tried to implement it got burned, giving OSI a reputation for poor quality Disadvantages of TCP/IP model: When TCP/IP is compared with IPX there are few drawbacks. IPX is faster compared to TCP/IP. TCP/IP is intricate to set up and manage. The overhead of TCP/IP is higher than that of IPX. The process involved in TCP/IP is long. The entire process is, port numbers are assigned by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and they identify the process to which a particular packet is connected to. Port numbers are found in the packet header. [11]. Few more disadvantages of this model are: software used for strict layering is very inefficient. When buffers are provided they leave space for headers which are added by lower layer protocols. [12] Security:- Internet has become a phenomenon. Sharing Files, transferring Files all across the network has caused the users to think about some serious problems that are being raised due to the phenomenon of Internet. Security is another issue that sits at the top of the level as designers and developers both struggle to give out the correct form of measures to be taken to deal with the issue of Network Security. Since the Protocol Stack has got just one layer to really check the authenticity of the packets that pass through the layers and the network. It has allowed the network to become more susceptible to foreign threats. Since, Computers that are connected to each other create a network. These networks are often configured with public Internet Protocol (IP) addresses that is, the devices on the network are visible to devices outside the network. Networks can also be configured as private meaning that devices outside the network cannot see or communicate directly to them. Computers on a public network have the advantage (and disadvantage) that they are completely visible to the Internet. As such, they have no boundaries between themselves and the rest of the Internet community. This advantage oftentimes becomes a distinct disadvantage since this visibility can lead to a computer vulnerability exploit -e.g.: Hacking if the devices on the public network are not properly secured.To plainly counter this strategy the, we employ a private LAN and make the network a private network then the disadvantage of a private network would be that it entails more configuration and administration to maintain usability. At times, not being fully visible on the Internet can cause some difficulty in connecting to certain services, such as streaming audio/video, chat/instant messaging programs, or some secure Web sites. Maintaining most computers on a private network, with only an IDP/IDS and/or Firewall visible to the public Internet helps maintain a highly secure environment for the computers on the private network, while at the same time keeping them connected to the public Internet.[13] Benefits of OSI model:- The OSI Model is a standard and a very useful tool to deal with the problems of networking. The OSI model is also a standard model for networking protocols and distributed application. In the OSI model there are a total of 7 network layers. The layers of OSI provide the levels of abstraction. Each layer performs a different set of functions and the intent was to make each layer as independent as possible from all the others. This guarantees the security to each packet that passes through these layers also, it reduces the complexity of packet routing through each layer thus reducing the threat of congestion in the network. Each layer uses the information from the below layer and provides a service to the layer above in the OSI Model. [14] Conclusion: Even though OSI model has a few limitations it cannot be said that the model is not suitable anymore because talking about the time and the influence of the OSI model on the networking as whole has had a lot of positive causes. Even if we have many new models coming up with different improvements the base model is always the OSI model. What we can take out of the OSI model are mainly the benefits of the OSI model and which even are the major characteristics needed for creating a good model. The OSI Model is perhaps the most imp lest and widely used through the world. Owing to the advantages of this network we are able to reduce the complexity and save time when passing data on a network. Reference:- 1) John Larmouth (1996): Understanding OSI: International Thomson Computer Press, Michigan. USA} 2) Computer networks 3rd edition by ANDREW S. TANENBAUM 3) Standard network layer architecture, By Bradley Mitchell http://compnetworking.about.com/cs/designosimodel/a/osimodel.htm 4)http://www2.rad.com/networks/introductory/layers/main.htm 5) By Douglas Comers http://www.cellsoft.de/telecom/tcpip.htm 6) Author: Gabriel Torres http://www.hardwaresecrets.com/article/433/1,2,3,4,5,6 7) Charles M. Kozierok .http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_TCPIPLowerLayerInterfaceInternetandTransportProtoc.htm 8) Charles M. Kozierok http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_DataLinkLayerTechnologiesandProtocols.htm http://itprofesionals.blogspot.com/2009/01/what-is-difference-between-osi-model.html 10) Computer Networks Fourth Edition by Andrew S. Tanenbaum 11)www.tech-faq.com/understanding-the-osi-model.shtml www.bookrags.com/wiki/OSI_model 13) Behrouz A. Forouzan, Sophia Chung Fegan (2004). Data Communications and Networking, McGraw-Hill Professional, USA. 14) http://compnetworking.about.com/cs/designosimodel/a/osimodel.htm

Long Term Academic Goals

My long term academic goal is obtain a bachelor's degree. That goal is first broken down into semesters in which I take two courses at a time. I am currently taking two courses, and this is my first semester. I break down the semester into weeks, doing work on a weekly basis. At the beginning of the week, which for me is Monday, I estimate how long it will take me to complete that weeks reading assignment. I divide that time by five days, as I prefer not to read on the weekend, and I read that many hours each day.So, for example, if I estimate that I have five hours' worth of reading or the week, I would read for an hour each day. In regard to priorities, I establish them by due date of assignments, and amount of work due each class. I try to do the heaviest work load first. My support group consists of my family and friends. I usually talk to them on a daily basis on my commute to work, and I tell them about the work I am doing for each class each week. They listen attentively, and offer advice on how to complete the work in a timely fashion, such as setting aside time each day for school work.My brother is particularly supportive, as both he and I started college when we were both young, and he is Curious as to the changes that have happened over the years. My backup plan in case my computer goes down is twofold. First, I have my laptop on which I can access the internet. On the laptop, I have MS Word, so I can do my assignments. If both my main computer and my laptop go down, I have access to my brother's laptop, which has MS Word on It as well. I also have access to the internet via my local public library.Finally, I keep track of my assignments and due dates via a paper desktop calendar and my Blackberry. The desktop calendar Is on my work desk. I write every assignment on the date that It Is due on the calendar. When I complete an assignment, I check It off with a purple highlighter. I also put the assignment Into my Blackberry calendar, and set an alarm to go off at 10:00 AM of the date the assignment Is due. Since assignments are not due until midnight of the day they are due, If the assignment Is still outstanding, I have fourteen hours to complete It. This gives me adequate time to still complete the assignment.

What Does Proportion Mean in Art

Proportion and scale are principles of art that describe the size, location, or amount of one element in relation to another. They have a great deal to do with the overall harmony of an individual piece and our perception of the art. As a fundamental element in artistic work, proportion and scale are quite complex. There are also many different ways that theyre used by artists. Proportion and Scale in Art Scale  is used in art to describe the size of one object in relation to another, each object is often referred to as a whole.  Proportion has a very similar definition but tends to refer to the relative size of parts within a whole. In this case, the  whole  can be a single object like a persons face or the entire artwork as in a landscape. For example, if youre painting a portrait of a dog and a person, the dog should be at the correct scale in relation to the person. The persons body (and the dogs as well) should be in a proportion to  what we can recognize as a human being. Essentially, scale and proportion help the viewer make sense of the artwork. If something seems off, then it can be disturbing because its unfamiliar. Yet, artists can use this to their advantage as well. Some artists purposely distort proportions to give the work a certain feel or to relay a message. The photomontage work of Hannah Hà ¶ch is a great example. Much of her work is a commentary on issues and she blatantly plays with scale and proportion to emphasize her point. That said, there is a fine line between poor execution in proportion and the purposeful distortion of proportion. Proportion, Scale, and Balance Proportion and scale help give a piece of art balance. We instinctively have a sense of balance (thats how we can stand up straight) and that relates to our visual experience as well. Balance can be symmetrical (formal balance) or asymmetrical (informal balance) and proportion and scale are key to our perception of balance. Symmetrical balance arranges objects or elements so they are evenly weighted, such as your nose in the center of your eyes. Asymmetrical  balance means that objects are placed to one side or another. In a portrait, for instance, you might draw a person slightly off-center and have them look toward the middle. This weights the drawing to the side and offers visual interest. Proportion and Beauty Leonardo da Vincis Vitruvian Man (ca. 1490) is a perfect example of proportion in the human body. This is that familiar drawing of the naked man within a rectangle that is within a circle. His arms are outstretched and his legs are  shown both together and spread out. Da Vinci used this figure as a study of the proportions of the body. His  precise  representation examined what  people  thought was the  perfect  male  body at the time. We see this perfection in Michelangelos David statue  as well. In this  case, the artist used classic  Greek mathematics to sculpt a perfectly proportioned body. The perception of beautiful proportions has changed over the ages. In the  Renaissance, human figures  tend to be plump and  healthy (not obese by  any means), particularly  the women because it implied fertility. Over time, the shape of the  perfect human body changed  to the point where we are today when fashion models are very lean. In earlier times, this would have been a sign of sickness. The proportion of the face is another concern for artists. People are naturally attracted to symmetry in facial features, so artists tend toward perfectly spaced eyes in relation to the nose and a properly sized mouth. Even if those features arent symmetrical in reality, an artist can correct that to a certain extent while maintaining a likeness of the person. Artists learn this from the very beginning  with tutorials in a properly proportioned face. Concepts like the Golden Ratio  also guide our perception of beauty and in how the proportion, scale, and balance of elements make a subject or the entire piece more attractive. And yet, perfect proportions are not the only source of beauty. As Francis Bacon put it, There is no excellent beauty that hath not some strangeness in the  proportion. Scale and Perspective Scale affects our perception of perspective as well. A painting feels three-dimensional if objects are correctly scaled against one another in relation to the viewpoint. In a landscape, for example, the scale  between  a mountain in the distance and a tree in the foreground should reflect the perspective of the viewer. The tree is not, in reality, as big as the mountain, but because its closer to the viewer, it appears much larger. If the tree and mountain were their realistic sizes, the painting would lack depth, which is one thing that makes great landscapes. The Scale of Art Itself There is also something to be said about the scale (or size) of an entire piece of art. When speaking of scale in this sense, we naturally use our body as the reference point. An object that can fit in our hands but includes delicate, intricate carvings can have as much of an impact as a painting thats 8-foot tall. Our perception is shaped by how large or small something is compared to ourselves. For this reason, we tend to marvel more at works that are at the extreme of either range. Its also why many pieces of art fall within a certain range of 1 to 4 feet. These sizes are comfortable for us, they neither overwhelm our space nor get lost in it.

A Research Article On Women - 810 Words

Background Women have owned and managed businesses for centuries, but the first scholarly article focused on women-owned businesses (Gartner, 1985) did not appear in the literature until 1976 (Jennings Brush, 2013). Early scholars seem to have assumed that all business owners were essentially the same, and groups of small business owners did not require different research (Achtenhagen Welter, 2011). Over the past 10 years in the United States, the rate of new business formation by women has outpaced that of men and other minority groups (Powell Eddleston, 2013). The increase in women business ownership has also increased the amount of research focused on women small business owners (Avolio, 2011). Some researchers have sought to understand why the businesses owned by women generate 25% lower profits than the average businesses in the United States (Small Business Administration [SBA], 2012). Further research focusing on how women run their businesses to increase profitability coul d support the improved profits of additional women small business owners (Marlow McAdam, 2013). Women small business owners may have motivations and decision-making processes that require distinctive financial strategies when running a business (Powell Eddleston, 2013). Women may desire a work-family balance and to obtain this balance may need distinctive financial strategies. In addition, financial decisions made by women business owners may have significant positive implications on theShow MoreRelatedRisk Factors For Mental Disorders1065 Words   |  5 PagesTrigub, C., Prince, M., Oram, S., Gorceag, V., Ostrovschi, N. (2013). Risk factors for mental disorders in women survivors of human trafficking: a historical cohort study. 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The article has helpful insight that act as warningRead MoreThe Continuity Of Midwifery Care1490 Words   |  6 Pagesstructures and processes influencing their ability to provide caseload care to socially disadvantaged and vulnerable women. Midwifery, 30(10), 1096-1103 8p. doi:10.1016/j.midw.2013.12.015 In this article, the authors explored the continuity of midwifery care using the caseload approach that was established in Queensland. This was to address the development of care for women experiencing inequalities and to improve birth outcomes. The authors objective was to investigate midwife’s responsibilitiesRead MoreA Brief Note On Systemic Obstacles And The Criminal Prosecution Of A Battering Partner1373 Words   |  6 PagesThe article I am critiquing is entitled â€Å"Systemic Obstacles to the Criminal Prosecution of a Battering Partner: A Victim Perspective.† It seeks to explain the criminal justice system related to battered women, from a victim’s point of view. The major issue being investigated in this article is that many women fail to follow through after battery charges are pressed. The major concepts discussed in this article were not well conceptualized. While there was not much that needed to be conceptualizedRead MoreReview of Janet Ho lmes Article Men, Women and Politeness Essay1021 Words   |  5 PagesThe author of the article Men, Women and Politeness was Janet Holmes. It was published in 1995. This article, intentionally, speaks about how women and men interrelate. The basis of her argument is very simple and clearly expressed. Holmes tries to say that women are more polite than men, in the way a person speaks. She says that women have ‘softened tones of disagreement’, whereas refers men to being blunt and aggressive. . 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In 2008 23.1% of live births were induced in the United States, which was a doubled amount from the 1990s (Cheng, Kaimal, Snowden, Nicholson, Caughey, 2012). However, it seems as if the negative and positive effects of being induced are rarely highlighted. It is important though that patients receive correct evidence based research about induction compared to the natural onset of labor

Hamlet to Prufrock - 1833 Words

Tiffany Li Ms. Hall ENG 4U1 December 13th, 2010 A Life Without Love, is No Life at All As the flawed in protagonists of Shakespeare’s Hamlet and T.S Eliot’s poem The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, both Hamlet and Prufrock live in a times of disharmony. Feelings of passion are controlled by realistic tendencies and neither allows sensitivity to rule their order. This underlying journey or quest for female contact causes both characters to live meaningless lives eventually leading to harsh consequences. Eventually seeking the companionship of anyone that can fill their void of romance, they two are synced and remove themselves altogether from society. Both protagonists Hamlet and Prufrock embrace an anti-romantic outlook in their†¦show more content†¦Prufrock similarly begins to see women as an object of status and not as people. Hamlet and Prufrock are joint in their harsh treatment of women as begin to lose their courteous and gracious identity as gentlemen; insulting and objectifying them. While Hamlet pretends to be mad, he is allowing himself to speak as he honestly wishes and does not hide his thoughts as all those around him will not truly listen to him. As royalty, a prince would be expected to be well mannered and respectful of all those around him, especially to his mother and previous love interest. However after the lost of both his mother, to an incestuous relationship with his uncle, and his lover Ophelia, to the persuasions of her father and brother, Hamlet feels distaste towards women in general and see them as distractions to his life. They are of no real use and deserve no respect: Hamlet I could interpret between you and your loveif I could see the puppets dallying. Ophelia You are keen, my lord, you are keen.Hamlet It would cost you a groaning to take off mine edge. | | | | | | (3.2.231-234) A man of his status would not originally be able to speak to a woman like this, much less the woman he wanted to marry only two months previous. However fuelled with angry emotions, Hamlet’s puns insult Ophelia and ridicule her; no longer caring about her feelings as he begins his distrust of women and abuse towards them with language. This treatment of women in his life is similar to that ofShow MoreRelatedAgamemnon, Hamlet and ALfred prufrock compasion essay1616 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿Title: A Comparison of the Element of Hamartia in â€Å"Hamlet†, â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock†, and â€Å"Agamemnon† Thesis: One of the elements that can be compared in the plays â€Å"Hamlet†, â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock†, and â€Å"Agamemnon† is hamartia. Attempt has been made to analyse the main characters’ personality traits and provide the reader with specific examples that help to clarify how hamartia is present in each of the three plays. In order to analyse all the three characters’ personalitiesRead MoreBe Responsible and Take Action in Shakespeare, Aeschylus and T. S. Eliot Literature1132 Words   |  5 PagesShakespeare along with Aeschylus and T. S. Eliot use character from each of their respectable work including Hamlet, Agamemnon and The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock to demonstrate one must responsibly be able to decide and take action in desperate times in order to prevent tragedy or greater loss. Through the text of these three prominent literacy works from the ancient history to the 1900’s, one element that is evident in all thre e literature works is hamartia, which is directly related to theRead MoreEssay Emotion in T.S. Eliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock1453 Words   |  6 PagesEmotion in T.S. Eliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock In his poem â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,† T.S. Eliot subtly conveys a wide variety of Prufrock’s emotions; he creates pathos for the speaker by employing the â€Å"objective correlative,† which Eliot defines as â€Å"a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events [that] shall be the formula of that particular emotion† (â€Å"Hamlet and His Problems†). The first stanza introduces Prufrock’s isolation, as epitomized metaphorically byRead MoreThe Truth Behind The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock Essay617 Words   |  3 PagesThe Truth Behind The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock The Truth Behind The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock The speaker of this ironic monologue is a modern man who, like many of his kind, feels isolated and incapable of decisive action. Irony is apparent from the title, for this is not a conventional love song. Prufrock would like to speak of love to a woman, but he does not have the nerve. The poem opens with a quoted passage from Dantes INFERNO, If I thought thatRead MoreThe Paralysis of Prufrock in The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock909 Words   |  4 Pagesact, has been a key element of many famous literary characters. Shakespeare’s Hamlet is the paragon of paralysis, unable to sort through his thoughts, Hamlet only makes one decisive action, at the end of the play. T.S Elliot’s transfers Hamlets’ paralysis in his poem The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. The name Elliot chose for this indecisive, timid man epitomizes his character as well as his flaws. J. Alfred Prufrock needs this ranting monologue in order for him to understand the severity of hisRead More Human Insecurity in T.S Eliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock1135 Words   |  5 PagesEliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock T.S Eliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock is an examination of human insecurity and folly, embodied in the titles J. Alfred Prufrock. Eliots story of a mans overwhelming question, his inability to ask it, and consequently, his mental rejection plays off the poems many ambiguities, both structural and literal. Eliot uses these uncertainties to develop both the plot of the poem and the character of J. Alfred Prufrock. The poems setting is oneRead MoreT.S. Eliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prurock Analysis1162 Words   |  5 PagesIn T. S. Eliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, the author is establishing the danger the narrator is having dealing with getting older. Prufrock is the narrator in this poem, and believes that age is a burden and is totally troubled by it. He feels the prime of his life is over and he cant love women the way he used to. His worry with the passing of time characterizes his fear of aging. The poem deals with these fears. In this poem, Prufrock feels unsure about himself. He is frightenedRead MoreThe Hollow Men And The Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock Essay1444 Words   |  6 Pagesmodern society during the Roaring Twenties. He expresses the false values found in society that affects their perception of themselves, and cause them to lose direction in their lives. Through his poems â€Å"The Hollow Men† and â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† Eliot explores the modern underlying issues of both society and man as being lost, stagnant, and aimless. He advocates for change through de-romanticizing the human condition via the use of allusions. Through such allusions, Eliot comments on theRead More T.S Eliot’s Preludes and The Love Song of J.Alfred. Prufrock, are examples1059 Words   |  5 PagesT.S Eliot’s Preludes and The Love Song of J.Alfred. Prufrock, are examples of modernist poetry which illustrate the concerns of modernist poets. Explain how the poetry you have studied reflects some of the major concerns of its context? In your answer refer closely to two poems by T.S. Eliot. T.S Eliot’s Preludes and The Love Song of J.Alfred. Prufrock, are examples of modernist poetry which illustrate the concerns of modernist poets. The modern era, which lasted between 1885 to 1940Read MoreLiterary Analysis Of The Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock1497 Words   |  6 PagesAnalysis of The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock The human psyche has perpetually been characterized by a nagging sense of doubt. When one makes the decision to follow through (or, rather, not follow through) with an action, it is unlikely that he does so without questioning whether he made the right choice; this is recurring theme in literature, evident in works such as Crime and Punishment and A Separate Peace. T.S. Eliot’s The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock explores the universal nature of hesitation

Operations in management Free Essays

Operations Management Is one of the essential business functions and is therefore vital to any organizational system that delivers products and services , for example a bank, airline, or computer manufacturer. At the very core, operations management Is all about, designing, creating, controlling and Improving the many operational processes wealth a company (In such system environments). Operations management deals with a transformation of inputs such as raw materials, labor, capital and information into outputs such as goods and services and can include finished products that are ready for consumptions and semi ready products such as work-in-progress or inputs for other operations. We will write a custom essay sample on Operations in management or any similar topic only for you Order Now Transformation of inputs usually requires a series of processes (steps) in order to get the desired output. Successful transformation depends on sufficient feedback so that we can continuously control and improve the existing processes. Supply chains bring products to customers ND consist of a network or all interactions between suppliers and customers. In order to efficiently manage each facet of the SC, each company has to perform in each area; any operational decision might effect and impact the other stakeholders in the supply chain. They ensure alignment of strategy and operations with suppliers and customers through communication and information flows. -Involves several different companies. The individual companies are connected through flows. However Supply chains are usually more complex. Multitude structure made up of multiple companies. These companies have to work together in order to form a functional supply chain. SCM is about planning and controlling all the aspects of interaction between the companies involved in the complex process of forming a Vs†¦ A â€Å"system† refers to a collection of parts working interdependently to create a specifiable outcome. Feedback is the information about t he performance of the system, that when returned to the system, can modify the system’s behavior. A system is an interconnected and coordinated set of elements and process that converts inputs into desired outputs. A company is made up of numerous individual systems in the various functional areas, not only in manufacturing or operations but also in engineering, marketing, accounting, and other areas that together constitute the overall system that is the company itself moment in time. LINE VIEW: multiple activities in sequence. 0 CIRCLE VIEW: results of one cycle provide feedback to the next cycle. Help everyone see the big picture: employees do not focus too heavily on their own goals, the business is interrelated, therefore it is important employees also focus on he business’ goals as a whole so that the system works efficiently. -Understand how individual systems really work and how they interact: while trying to improve one system it is important not to damage another. Therefore it is important not to try and fix a system without understanding how each one works and how they interact with other systems. Understand problems before trying to fix them: â€Å"The typical way of managing is to take the whole and divide it into parts, then try to make each part perform as well as possible. But we have proven many times now that when you improve the reference of the parts you do not necessarily improve the performance of the whole. In fact, you can make it worse. Putting a Mercedes engine in a Volkswagen, for instance, doesn’t make the Volkswagen a better car, even though it now has a superior engine. A system has properties that none of the parts have. How to cite Operations in management, Essays

A Woman Of No Importance monologue Essay Example For Students

A Woman Of No Importance monologue Essay A monologue from the play by Oscar Wilde NOTE: This monologue is reprinted from A Woman of No Importance. Oscar Wilde. London: Methuen Co., 1916. MRS. ARBUTHNOT: I will never stand before God\s altar and ask God\s blessing on so hideous a mockery as a marriage between me and George Harford. I will not say the words the Church bids us to say. I will not say them. How could I swear to love the man I loathe, to honour him who wrought you dishonor, to obey him who, in his mastery, made me to sin? No; marriage is a sacrament for those who love each other. It is not for such as him, or such as me. Gerald, to save you from the world\s sneers and taunts I have lied to the world. For twenty years I have lied to the world. I could not tell the truth. No, Gerald, no ceremony, Church-hallowed or State-made, shall ever bind me to George Harford. Men don\t understand what mothers are. I am no different from other women except in the wrong done me and the wrong I did, and my very heavy punishments and great disgrace. And yet, to bear you I had to look on death. To nurture you I had to wrestle with it. Death fought with me for you. All women have to fight with death to keep their children. Death, being childless, wants our children from us. Gerald, when you were naked I clothed you, when you were hungry I gave you food. Night and day all that long winter I tended you. No office is too mean, no care too lowly for the thing we women loveand oh! how I loved you! And you needed love, for you were weakly, and only love could have kept you alive. Only love can keep any one alive. And boys are careless often, and without thinking give pain, and we always fancy that when they come to man\s estate and know us better they will repay us. But it is not so. The world draws them from our side, and they make friends with whom they are happier than they are with us, and have amusements from which we are barred, and interests that are not ours; and they are unjust to us often, for when they find life bitter they blame us for it, and when they find it sweet we do not taste its sweetness with them. . . . You made many friends and went in to their houses and were glad with them, and I, knowing my secret, did not dare to follow, but stayed at home and closed the door, shut out the sun and sat in darkness. My past was ever with me. . . . And you thought I didn\t care for the pleasant things of life. I tell you I longed for them, but did not dare to touch them, feeling I had no right. You thought I was happier working amongst the poor. That was my mission, you imagined. It was not, but where else was I to go? The sick do not ask if the hand that smooths their pillow is pure, nor the dying care if the lips that touch their brow have known the kiss of sin. It was you I thought of all the time; I gave to them the love you did not need; lavished on them a love that was not theirs. . . . And you thought I spent too much of my time in going to Church, and in Church duties. But where else could I turn? God\s house is the only house where sinners are made welcome, and you were always in my heart, Gerald, too much in my heart. F or though day after day, at morn or evensong, I have knelt in God\s house, I never repented of my sin. How could I repent of my sin when you, my love, were its fruit. Even now that you are bitter to me I cannot repent. I do not. You are more to me than innocence. I would rather be your motheroh! much rather!than have been always pure. . . . Oh, don\t you see? don\t you understand! It is my dishonour that has made you so dear to me. It is my disgrace that has bound you so closely to me. It is the price I paid for youthe price of soul and bodythat makes me love you as I do. Oh, don\t ask me to do this horrible thing. 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